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Vitamin E (Alpha-Tocopherol) Be aware that the U.S. Food and Drug Administration does not strictly regulate herbs and dietary supplements. There is no guarantee of strength, purity or safety of products containing or claiming to contain vitamin E. Decisions to use herbs or supplements should be carefully considered. Individuals using prescription drugs should discuss taking herbs or supplements with their pharmacist or health care provider before starting.
Scientists have studied vitamin E for the following health problems: Vitamin E deficiency | Vitamin E deficiency is rare and may occur in people with intestinal absorption problems, malnutrition, very low-fat diets, several genetic conditions, very low birth weight premature infants or infants taking unfortified formulas. Supplementation with vitamin E may be necessary in these conditions and should be under strict medical attention. Prolonged vitamin E deficiency may cause severe medical complications. | Anemia | Research in this area is mixed, and benefits are not clear at this time. | Angina | Research in this area remains unclear, and additional study is necessary before a clear conclusion can be drawn. Patients with known or suspected angina should be evaluated by a physician. | Antioxidant | Vitamin E possesses antioxidant activity, but it is not clear if there is any benefit of this property in humans. | Atherosclerosis | Studies of large populations have produced mixed results in this area. At this time, it remains unclear if vitamin E is beneficial in people with atherosclerosis. | Bladder cancer treatment (in addition to standard therapies) | There is promising preliminary evidence in this area, but more research is necessary before a clear conclusion can be reached. | Breast cancer | The scientific evidence in this area is inconclusive. | Breast cancer-related hot flashes | An initial study in this area reported reduced hot flashes but no preference among patients for vitamin E over placebo. | Cancer treatment | There is no reliable scientific evidence that vitamin E is effective as a treatment for any specific type of cancer. Caution is warranted in people being treated with some types of chemotherapy or radiation, because it has been proposed that the use of high-dose antioxidants may actually reduce the anticancer effects of these treatments. Patients who are considering the use of high-dose antioxidants, such as vitamin E, during chemotherapy or radiation should discuss this decision with their medical oncologist or radiation oncologist. High doses of vitamin E may also cause harm in cancer patients. | Heart disease in dialysis patients | The scientific evidence in this area is inconclusive. | Cataract prevention | There is conflicting scientific evidence in this area. | Chemotherapy nerve damage (neurotoxicity) | The scientific evidence in this area is inconclusive. Caution is warranted in people being treated with some types of chemotherapy or radiation, because it has been proposed that the use of high-dose antioxidants may actually reduce the anticancer effects of these treatments. Patients who are considering the use of high-dose antioxidants, such as vitamin E, during chemotherapy or radiation should discuss this decision with their medical oncologist or radiation oncologist. | Colon cancer prevention | There is not sufficient scientific evidence to determine if vitamin E prevents colon cancer. Recent research suggests that there may be no overall benefit of vitamin E on cancer prevention, especially in women. In patients with previous colon cancer, a combination of vitamins A, C, and E has been reported to reduce the risk of developing a new colon cancer. Preventive benefits have also been suggested in those with no prior colon cancer when vitamin E is used in a multivitamin, but not when used alone. | Dementia, Alzheimer's disease | The scientific evidence in this area is inconclusive. | Diabetes mellitus | Vitamin E has been proposed to prevent type 1 or 2 diabetes, as well as the related complications of the eye, kidneys, and nervous system. Vitamin E has also been proposed to improve blood sugar control and artery/platelet function in diabetic patients. It is not clear that vitamin E is beneficial in any of these areas, and further evidence is necessary before a clear conclusion can be drawn. | Dysmenorrhea (menstrual pain) | A small amount of initial research suggests that vitamin E may be helpful in reducing chronic menstrual pain. Additional research is necessary before a firm conclusion can be drawn. | G6PD (glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase) deficiency | There is conflicting scientific evidence in this area. | Glomerulosclerosis (kidney disease) | The scientific evidence in this area is inconclusive. | Healing after photorefractive keratectomy (laser vision correction) | High-dose vitamin E plus vitamin A (taken by mouth) may improve healing of the cornea and improve visual acuity (sharpness) following laser surgery for vision correction. Additional research is necessary before this use of vitamin E can be concluded as being safe or effective. | High cholesterol | The scientific evidence in this area is inconclusive | Immune system function | Studies in this area have mixed results. Better research is necessary before a clear conclusion can be drawn. | Intermittent claudication (peripheral vascular disease) | Although some results have been promising, the scientific evidence in this area is inconclusive. | Macular degeneration | Like other antioxidants, vitamin E has been suggested to prevent, slow progression of or improve macular degeneration. The scientific evidence in this area is not conclusive, although there is some suggestion that vitamin E alone may not be beneficial. | Parkinson's disease | The scientific evidence in this area is inconclusive | Premenstrual syndrome | The scientific evidence in this area is inconclusive. | Respiratory tract infection | The scientific evidence in this area is inconclusive, although initial research suggests that vitamin E is not beneficial in preventing or treating lower respiratory tract infections (pneumonia) or upper respiratory tract infections. | Steatohepatitis | There is preliminary evidence suggesting possible benefits in the management of steatohepatitis in children, although further evidence is necessary before a clear conclusion can be drawn. Treatment should be under strict medical attention. | Supplementation in preterm and very low birth weight infants | Premature infants are at risk of vitamin E deficiency, particularly when they are born with very low birth weight (less than 1,500 grams; or three pounds, four ounces). There are numerous studies of vitamin E given to premature infants to try to prevent potentially serious complications such as intraventricular hemorrhage (bleeding into the brain), retinopathy (eye damage) or death. The quality of published research is variable and is not clearly conclusive. With intravenous dosing of vitamin E, the risk of sepsis (life-threatening blood infection) and bleeding into the brain may actually be worse (particularly with high-dose vitamin E). With dosing by mouth, the risk of bleeding into the brain appears to be decreased. Some research suggests that blood levels of tocopherol greater than 3.5 milligrams per deciliter are associated with a reduced risk of severe retinopathy but an increased risk of sepsis. Therefore, the current scientific evidence does not support the routine use of intravenous vitamin E at high doses or supplementation with a goal of serum tocopherol levels greater than 3.5 milligrams per deciliter. Premature infants should be under strict medical supervision, and decisions regarding vitamin supplementation should be made with the infant's physician. | Tardive dyskinesia | There is promising early research in this area, but at this time, the evidence remains inconclusive. | Asthma | Initial research suggests no benefits of vitamin E. | Cancer prevention (general) | This is an area of controversy, with studies having mixed results. At this time, based on the best available scientific evidence and recent concerns about the safety of vitamin E supplementation, vitamin E cannot be recommended for this use. | Heart disease prevention | Numerous studies of vitamin E oral supplementation have suggested no benefits in the prevention of cardiovascular disease, and there is recent evidence to suggest that regular use of high-dose vitamin E (400 International Units [IU] per day or greater) increases the risk of death (from "all causes") by a small amount. These conclusions have been criticized by some experts because they are based on recalculations (meta-analyses) of the results of prior smaller studies, which were of mixed quality, variable results and often in patients with chronic illnesses. In 2005, the Women's Health Study reported a 24 percent reduction in cardiovascular deaths in women taking 600 IU/day of vitamin E (with a 10-year follow-up) but no change in the total death rate or the number of heart attacks or strokes. Based on the balance of available scientific evidence, and in light of recent safety concerns, chronic use of vitamin E cannot be recommended for this purpose, and high-dose vitamin E should be avoided. | Retinitis pigmentosa | Oral vitamin E does not appear to slow visual decline in people with retinitis pigmentosa and may be associated with more rapid loss of visual acuity. | Scar prevention | Use of vitamin E on the skin does not appear to reduce surgical wound scarring. Because of a risk of rash, some authors have recommended against the use of this therapy. | Stroke | Evidence from the Women’s Health Study published in 2005 suggests that regular vitamin E supplementation with 600 IU/day does not reduce the risk of stroke. Prior evidence was indeterminate for stroke prevention or stroke recovery. At this time, based on the best available scientific evidence and recent safety concerns, vitamin E cannot be recommended for this use. | Allergic rhinitis | Although thought to aid in reducing the nasal symptoms of allergies, vitamin E intake may not be effective. Current evidence is limited, however, and more studies are needed before a firm conclusion can be drawn. | Altitude sickness | Vitamin E may offer some benefits in exposure to high altitude. Antioxidant supplementation (vitamin E with beta carotene, vitamin C, selenium, and zinc) may improve ventilatory threshold at high altitudes; however, antioxidants may not reduce inflammation after exercise at high altitude. More research is needed before conclusions can be drawn. | Cardiovascular disease in dialysis patients | It has been suggested that hemodialysis patients may be under increased oxidative stress and therefore may benefit from the chronic use of antioxidants (particularly for the reduction of risk of heart disease). Benefits or risks remain unclear in this population. Recent concern has been raised that regular use of high-dose vitamin E supplements may actually increase the risk of death (from "all causes") by a small amount, although this remains an area of controversy and active investigation. Additional research is necessary in this area before a firm conclusion can be reached. | Hepatitis C | In patients with hepatitis C on antiviral therapy, vitamin E has been proposed to prevent inflammation. More studies are needed to examine the effects of vitamin E in chronic hepatitis. | Peyronie's disease | One study did not show significant improvement in pain, curvature or plaque size in patients with peyronie's disease treated with vitamin E, propionyl-L-carnitine, or vitamin E plus propionyl-L-carnitine compared with those treated with placebo. | Stomach cancer prevention | Vitamin supplementation has been proposed to reduce the rate of stomach (gastric) cancer. However, there is some evidence suggesting that vitamin E does not reduce the rates of gastric cancer or precancerous gastric lesions. More research is needed to examine whether vitamin E has any effects on gastric cancer. | Osteoarthritis | Vitamin E does not appear to reduce symptoms or prevent cartilage loss in knee osteoarthritis. There is a lack of evidence supporting the use of vitamin E in the management of osteoarthritis. | Seizure disorder | Vitamin E has been evaluated as an addition to other drugs used to prevent seizures, particularly in refractory epilepsy. This evidence is not conclusive enough to make a clear recommendation. The management of seizure disorder should be under medical supervision. | Uveitis | Vitamin E had no apparent effects on uveitis-associated macular edema or visual acuity in one small study. Additional research is necessary before a clear conclusion can be drawn. | Venous thromboembolism | Data suggests that supplementation with vitamin E may reduce the risk of venous thromboembolism in women, and those with a prior history or genetic predisposition may particularly benefit. |
Vitamin E has been suggested for many other uses, based on tradition or on scientific theories. However, these uses have not been thoroughly studied in humans, and there is limited scientific evidence about safety or effectiveness. Some of these suggested uses are for conditions that are potentially very serious and even life-threatening. You should consult a health care provider before taking vitamin E for any unproven use. Abortifacient
Acne
Aging skin
Air pollution protection
Allergies
Amiodarone pulmonary toxicity prevention
Bee stings
Benign prostatic hypertrophy
Beta-thalassemia
Bronchopulmonary dysplasia in premature infants
Bursitis
Cardiomyopathy
Chemotherapy extravasation
Chronic cystic mastitis
Chronic progressive hereditary chorea
Congestive heart failure
Crohn’s disease
Cystic fibrosis
Dermatitis
Diaper rash
Doxorubicin hair loss prevention
Duchenne muscular dystrophy
Dyspraxia
Energy enhancement
Frostbite
Gastric ulcer
Granuloma annulare (used on the skin)
Hair loss
Heart transplant rejection prevention
Hereditary spherocytosis
Huntington’s disease | Hypertension
Impotence
Inflammatory skin disorders
Labor pain
Leg cramps
Liver spots
Lung cancer prevention
Male fertility
Menopausal symptoms
Menstrual disorders
Miscarriage
Mucositis
Muscle strength
Myotonic dystrophy
Neuromuscular disorders
Nitrate tolerance
Oral leukoplakia
Pancreatic cancer prevention
Peptic ulcers
Physical endurance
Poor posture
Porphyria
Post-angioplasty restenosis prevention
Pre-eclampsia prevention
Preventing aging
Radiation-induced fibrosis
Reperfusion injury protection during heart surgery
Restless leg syndrome
Rheumatoid arthritis
Sickle cell disease
Skeletal muscle damage
Skin disorders
Sperm motility
Sunburn
Thrombophlebitis |
Allergies Skin reactions and rashes such as contact dermatitis and eczema have been reported with the use of vitamin E on the skin, for example, ointments or vitamin E-containing deodorants. Individuals with known or suspected allergy or hypersensitivity to vitamin E should avoid these products. Side Effects Recent research suggests that regular use of high-dose vitamin E supplements (400 IU/day or greater) may increase the risk of death (from "all causes") by a small amount. These conclusions have been criticized by some experts because they are based on recalculations (meta-analyses) of the results of prior smaller studies, which were of mixed quality, with variable results and, often, in patients with chronic illnesses. Nonetheless, this is the best available scientific evidence currently, and therefore chronic use of vitamin E should be approached cautiously, and high-dose vitamin E should be avoided. Overdose of vitamin E is very uncommon. For short periods of time, vitamin E supplementation is generally considered safe at doses up to the recommended tolerable upper intake level of 1,000 milligrams per day (equivalent to 1,100 IU of synthetic vitamin E or 1,500 IU of natural vitamin E). However, vitamin E is possibly unsafe when used orally at doses exceeding the tolerable upper intake level. The recommended daily allowance (RDA) obtained through food consumption is considered to be safe and beneficial. High doses of vitamin E (greater than 400 IU/day) may increase the risk of bleeding (particularly in patients with vitamin K deficiency), including hemorrhagic stroke (bleeding into the brain). Caution is advised in patients with bleeding disorders or those taking drugs that may increase the risk of bleeding. Dosing adjustments may be necessary. In rare cases, vitamin E supplementation has been associated with dizziness, fatigue, headache, weakness or blurred vision (particularly when used in high doses). In rare cases, vitamin E supplementation has also been associated with abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea, diarrhea or flu-like symptoms (particularly when taken at high doses, such as greater than 2,000 IU/day). The risk of necrotizing enterocolitis may be increased with large doses of vitamin E. In rare cases, vitamin E supplementation has been associated with gonadal (sex organ) dysfunction and diminished kidney function. Oral vitamin E should be avoided in patients with retinitis pigmentosa, as is does not appear to slow visual decline and may be associated with more rapid loss of visual acuity (although the validity of this finding has been questioned). Pregnancy And Breast-Feeding Many prenatal vitamins contain small amounts of vitamin E. Natural forms of vitamin E may be preferable to synthetic forms. The U.S. RDA of vitamin E for pregnant women of any age is 15 milligrams (or 22.5 IU) and for breast-feeding women of any age is 19 milligrams(or 28.5 IU). Use beyond this level in otherwise healthy pregnant women is generally not recommended. There is otherwise insufficient evidence regarding the safety of higher doses of oral, topical or injected vitamin E during pregnancy or breast-feeding, and therefore it is not recommended.
Interactions with drugs, herbs and other supplements have not been thoroughly studied. The interactions listed below have been reported in scientific publications. If you are taking prescription drugs, speak with your health care provider or pharmacist before using herbs or dietary supplements. Interactions With Drugs The amount of bleeding risk associated with vitamin E remains an area of controversy, and caution is warranted in patients with a history of bleeding disorders or those taking blood-thinning drugs such as aspirin, anticoagulants such as warfarin (Coumadin) or heparin, antiplatelet drugs such as clopidogrel (Plavix), and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as ibuprofen (Motrin, Advil) or naproxen (Naprosyn, Aleve). Concern has been raised that antioxidants may interfere with some chemotherapy agents (such as alkylating agents, anthracyclines or platinums), which themselves can depend on oxidative damage to tumor cells for their anticancer effects. Studies in this area are mixed, with some reporting interference, others noting benefits, and most suggesting no significant interaction. Patients considering antioxidant use during chemotherapy or radiation therapy should discuss this decision with their physician. Cholestyramine (Questran) and colestipol (Colestid) can reduce dietary vitamin E absorption and blood levels of vitamin E. Vitamin E may increase absorption and blood levels of cyclosporine. Gemfibrozil (Lopid) may decrease blood levels of vitamin E. Dietary vitamin E absorption may be reduced by isoniazid (INH, Lanizid, Nydrazid), Olestra ("Olean" fat substitute), orlistat (Xenical) and sucralfate (Carafate). Antiseizure drugs such as phenobarbital, phenytoin or carbamazepine may decrease blood levels of vitamin E. Vitamin E may have additive effects with cholesterol-lowering medications. Interactions With Herbs And Dietary Supplements High doses of oral or injected vitamin E may increase the risk of bleeding, including hemorrhagic stroke (bleeding into the brain), and caution is warranted in patients with a history of bleeding disorders or those taking herbs or supplements that may also increase the risk of bleeding. Large doses of vitamin E may deplete vitamin A stores in the body. Mineral oil may reduce dietary vitamin E absorption. Increased intake of omega-6 fatty acids may increase vitamin E requirements, particularly at high doses. High doses of vitamin E appear to increase the body’s vitamin K requirement and may cause blood-clotting abnormalities in patients with vitamin K deficiency. Blood levels of vitamin E may be decreased with zinc deficiency. Aloe is reported to slow the rate of vitamin E absorption, allowing sustained release of vitamin E into the bloodstream. Vitamin E may have additive effects with cholesterol-lowering herbs and supplements.
The doses listed below are based on scientific research, publications or traditional use. Because most herbs and supplements have not been thoroughly studied or monitored, safety and effectiveness may not be proven. Brands may be made differently, with variable ingredients even within the same brand. Combination products often contain small amounts of each ingredient and may not be effective. Appropriate dosing should be discussed with a health care provider before starting therapy; always read the recommendations on a product's label. The dosing for unproven uses should be approached cautiously, because scientific information is limited in these areas. There are no well-established doses of vitamin E, and many different doses have been used and studied. Dietary sources of vitamin E include eggs, fortified cereals, fruit, green leafy vegetables (such as spinach), meat, nuts and nut oils, poultry, vegetable oils (corn, cottonseed, safflower, soybean, sunflower), wheat germ oil and whole grains. Cooking and storage may destroy some of the vitamin E in foods. Adults (Aged 18 Or Older) U.S. RDA: Most individuals in the United States are believed to obtain sufficient vitamin E from dietary sources, although individuals with very low-fat diets or intestinal malabsorption disorders may require supplementation. RDAs for vitamin E are provided in alpha-tocopherol equivalents (ATE) to account for the different biological activities of the various forms of vitamin E, as well as in IU, which food and supplement labels often use. For conversion, 1 milligram ATE = 1.5 International Units. The RDA for men or women older than 14 years is 15 milligrams (or 22.5 IU), for pregnant women of any age is 15 milligrams (or 22.5 IU), and for breast-feeding women of any age is 19 milligrams (or 28.5 IU). Tolerable upper intake levels: For adults older than 18 years, the tolerable upper limit of dosing for supplementary alpha-tocopherol recommended by the U.S. Institute of Medicine is 1,000 milligrams per day (equivalent to 1,500 IU). This limit recommendation is not altered during pregnancy or breast-feeding. Vitamin E deficiency: Treatment should be under medical supervision, tailored to the underlying cause of the deficiency, and may include either oral or injected vitamin E. If the cause is due to chronic malnutrition, and there is no evidence of malabsorption, an oral dose which is between two to five times greater than the RDA may be considered. If the cause is malabsorption that cannot be corrected, then injections of vitamin E may be necessary. Dosing recommendations vary by the underlying cause. Other conditions: No specific dosing of vitamin E has been established for other conditions, and there is recent evidence suggesting possible adverse health effects of long-term use of supplementation with 400 IU/day or greater. Although controversial, the use of long-term vitamin E supplementation should be approached cautiously until further evidence from prospective clinical trials is available. Various doses and durations have been evaluated in clinical trials, although many have not been proven as effective or safe. Patents are recommended to discuss the choice of dosing and duration with a licensed health care professional. Children (Younger Than 18) U.S. RDA and adequate intake: RDAs for vitamin E are provided in ATE to account for the different biological activities of the various forms of vitamin E, as well as in IU, because food and supplement labels often use this system. For conversion, 1 milligram ATE = 1.5 IU. There is no RDA for infants; rather, there is a recommended adequate intake for healthy breast-feeding infants aged 0 to 6 months of 4 milligrams per day (6 IU/day), and for infants aged 7 to 12 months of 5 milligrams per day (7.5 IU/day). The RDA for children aged 1 to 3 years is 6 milligrams per day (9 IU/day); for ages 4 to 8 years is 7 milligram sper day (10.5 IU/day); for ages 9 to 13 years is 11 milligrams per day (16.5 IU/day); for ages greater than 14 years is 15 milligrams per day (22.5 IU/day); for pregnant women of any age is 15 milligrams (or 22.5 IU); and for breast-feeding women of any age is 19 milligrams (or 28.5 IU). Tolerable upper intake levels: An upper limit for infants up to 12 months of age has not been established. The tolerable daily upper limit of dosing for ages 1 to 3 years is 200 milligrams (300 IU); for ages 4 to 8 years is 300 milligrams (450 IU); for ages 9 to 13 years is 600 milligrams (900 IU); and for ages 14 to 18 is 800 mlligrams (1,200 IU). Vitamin E deficiency: Treatment should be under medical supervision, tailored to the underlying cause of the deficiency, and may include either oral or injected vitamin E. Selected doses in specific conditions are noted above under adult dosing. Other conditions: No specific dosing of vitamin E has been established for other conditions. In premature neonates, oral vitamin E in a dose of 15 to 30 IU per kilogram per day has been studied to prevent retinopathy and bronchopulmonary dysplasia.
Vitamin E has been suggested as a treatment for many conditions. There is an RDA for vitamin E, which is generally obtained through dietary intake. Research supports use in individuals with vitamin E deficiency, although this condition is rare. There is not enough scientific evidence to support the use of vitamin E for any other medical condition. Recent research suggests that regular use of high-dose vitamin E supplements (400 IU/day or greater) may increase the risk of death (from "all causes") by a small amount. Although this area is controversial, chronic use of vitamin E should be approached cautiously, and high-dose vitamin E should be avoided. The amount of bleeding risk associated with vitamin E also remains an area of controversy, and caution is warranted in patients with a history of bleeding disorders or those taking blood-thinning drugs. As with other antioxidants, use of vitamin E during chemotherapy and radiation therapy may interfere with cancer treatment and should be discussed with the treating physician. Consult your health care provider immediately if you are taking vitamin E and experience any side effects. The information in this monograph was prepared by the professional staff at Natural Standard, based on thorough systematic review of scientific evidence. The material was reviewed by the Faculty of the Harvard Medical School with final editing approved by Natural Standard.
- Natural Standard: An organization that produces scientifically based reviews of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) topics
- National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM): A division of the U.S. Department of Health & Human Services dedicated to research
Selected Scientific Studies: Vitamin E Natural Standard has reviewed all of the currently available medical literature to prepare the professional monograph from which this version was created. Selected studies are listed below: - Antioxidant vitamins supplementation and mortality: a randomized trial in head and neck cancer patients. Int J Cancer 2006;Nov 1, 119(9):2221-2224.
- Boshtam M, Rafiei M, Golshadi ID, et al. Long term effects of oral vitamin E supplement in type II diabetic patients. Int J Vitam Nutr Res 2005;Sep, 75(5):341-346.
- Brigelius-Flohe R, Kelly FJ, Salonen JT, et al. The European perspective on vitamin E: current knowledge and future research. Am J Clin Nutr 2002;76(4):703-716.
- Brion LP, Bell EF, Raghuveer TS. Vitamin E supplementation for prevention of morbidity and mortality in preterm infants. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2003;(4):CD003665.
- Eidelman RS, Hollar D, Hebert PR, et al. Randomized trials of vitamin E in the treatment and prevention of cardiovascular disease. Arch Intern Med 2004;164(14):1552-1556.
- Farvid MS, Jalali M, Siassi F, Hosseini M. Comparison of the effects of vitamins and/or mineral supplementation on glomerular and tubular dysfunction in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care 2005;Oct, 28(10):2458-2464.
- Fillenbaum GG, Kuchibhatla MN, Hanlon JT, et al. Dementia and Alzheimer's disease in community-dwelling elders taking vitamin C and/or vitamin E. Ann Pharmacother 2005;Dec, 39(12):2009-2014. Epub 2005;Oct 14.
- Harris BD, Taylor JS. Contact allergy to vitamin E capsules: false-negative patch tests to vitamin E? Contact Dermatitis 1997;36(5):273.
- Hernaandez J, Syed S, Weiss G, et al. The modulation of prostate cancer risk with alpha-tocopherol: a pilot randomized, controlled clinical trial. J Urol 2005;174(2):519-522.
- Hoogwerf BJ, Young JB. The HOPE study: ramipril lowered cardiovascular risk, but vitamin E did not. Cleve Clin J Med 2000;67(4):287-293.
- Huang SH, Schall JI, Zemel BS, et al. Vitamin E status in children with cystic fibrosis and pancreatic insufficiency. J Pediatr 2006;Apr, 148(4):556-559.
- Kim JM, White RH. Effect of vitamin E on the anticoagulant response to warfarin. Am J Cardiol 1996;77(7):545-546.
- Klein EA, Thompson IM, Lippman SM, et al. SELECT: the selenium and vitamin E cancer prevention trial. Urol Oncol 2003;21(1):59-65.
- Klatte ET, Scharre DW, Nagaraja HN, et al. Combination therapy of donepezil and vitamin E in Alzheimer disease. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 2003;17(2):113-116.
- Kleijnen J, Mackerras D. Vitamin E for intermittent claudication. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000;(2):CD000987.
- Lavine JE. Vitamin E treatment of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis in children: a pilot study. J Pediatr 2000;136(6):734-738.
- Lee IM, Cook NR, Gaziano JM, et al. Vitamin E in the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer: the Women's Health Study. A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2005;294(1):56-65.
- Mayer-Davis EJ, Nichols M, Liese AD, et al. Dietary intake among youth with diabetes: the SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth Study. J Am Diet Assoc 2006;May, 106(5):689-697.
- McNeil JJ, Robman L, Tikellis G, et al. Vitamin E supplementation and cataract: randomized controlled trial. Ophthalmology 2004;111(1):75-84.
- Miller ER III, Pastor-Barriuso R, Dalal D, et al. Meta-analysis: high-dosage vitamin E supplementation may increase all-cause mortality. Annals of Internal Medicine (Published early on web) 2004;142(1):0000605-200501040.
- Murakami Y, Nagai A, Kawakami T, et al. Vitamin E and C supplementation prevents decrease of eicosapentaenoic acid in mononuclear cells in chronic hepatitis C patients during combination therapy of interferon alpha-2b and ribavirin. Nutrition 2006;Feb, 22(2):114-122.
- Natural Standard Research Collaboration, Chief Editors: Ulbricht C, Basch E, Natural Standard Herb and Supplement Reference. Evidence-Based Clinical Reviews, USA. Elsevier/Mosby, 2005.
- Nussenblatt RB, Kim J, Thompson DJ, et al. Vitamin E in the treatment of uveitis-associated macular edema. Am J Ophthalmol 2006;Jan, 141(1):193-194.
- Rodriguez C, Jacobs EJ, Mondul AM, et al. Vitamin E supplements and risk of prostate cancer in U.S. men. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2004;13(3):378-382.
- Shekelle PG, Morton SC, Jungvig LK, et al. Effect of supplemental vitamin E for the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease. J Gen Intern Med 2004;19(4):380-389.
- Subudhi AW, Jacobs KA, Hagobian TA, et al. Changes in ventilatory threshold at high altitude: effect of antioxidants. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2006;Aug, 38(8):1425-1431.
- Tabet N, Birks J, Grimley EJ. Vitamin E for Alzheimer's disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000;(4):CD002854.
- Vetrugno M, Maino A, Cardia G, et al. A randomised, double masked, clinical trial of high dose vitamin A and vitamin E supplementation after photorefractive keratectomy. Br J Ophthalmol 2001;85(5):537-539.
- Vijayaraghavan R, Suribabu CS, Sekar B, et al. Protective role of vitamin E on the oxidative stress in Hansen's disease (Leprosy) patients. Eur J Clin Nutr 2005;Oct, 59(10):1121-1128.
- Vivekananthan DP, Penn MS, Sapp SK, et al. Use of antioxidant vitamins for the prevention of cardiovascular disease: meta-analysis of randomised trials. Lancet 2003;361(9374):2017-2023.
- Walsh PC. Effects of long-term vitamin E supplementation on cardiovascular events and cancer: a randomized controlled trial. J Urol 2005;Nov, 174(5):1823-1824.
- Wluka AE, Stuckey S, Brand C, et al. Supplementary vitamin E does not affect the loss of cartilage volume in knee osteoarthritis: a 2 year double blind randomized placebo controlled study. J Rheumatol 2002;29(12):2585-2591.
- You WC, Brown LM, Zhang L, et al. Randomized double-blind factorial trial of three treatments to reduce the prevalence of precancerous gastric lesions. J Natl Cancer Inst 2006;Jul 19, 98(14):974-983.
- Yusuf S, Dagenais G, Pogue J, et al. Vitamin E supplementation and cardiovascular events in high-risk patients: the Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation Study Investigators. N Engl J Med 2000;342(3):154-160.
Last updated May 08, 2008
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